Pharmacist Exams revision: Pharmacology Chapter 1 - Important One Liner questions
4 〉 A full agonist is an agonist that produces the largest maximal response of any known agonist that acts on the same receptor.
-- Full Agonist
8 〉 A drug that causes loss of sensation.
-- Anesthetic
10 〉 The determination of the potency of a physical, chemical or biological agent, by means of a biological indicator
-- Biological Assay
11 〉 The percent of dose entering the systemic circulation after administration of a given dosage form.
-- Bioavailability
13 〉 Chemical alteration of an agent (drug) that occurs by virtue of the sojourn of the agent in a biological system.
-- Biotransformation
14 〉 The movement of chemicals (drugs) into, through, and out of biological organisms or their parts.
-- Biotranslocation
5 〉 An inverse agonist is a ligand that by binding to a receptor reduces the fraction of receptors in an active conformation, thereby reducing basal activity.
-- Inverse Agonist
12 〉 The science and study of the ways in which the pharmaceutical formulation of administered agents can influence their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic behaviour.
-- Biopharmaceutics
15 〉 A form of experiment in which the participants are, to some degree, kept ignorant of the nature and doses of materials administered as specific parts of the experiment.
-- Blind Experiment
one liners organic chemistry file-11
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
2 〉 Two electrons that are not shared between atoms within a molecule.
-- lone pair/unshared pair
4 〉 The formula that shows all the atoms a molecule consist of.
-- molecular formula
6 〉 A reaction between an acid and a base that results in salt and water.
-- neutralization reaction
8 〉 A bond where elections are equally shared between two atoms.
-- nonpolar covalent bond
10 〉 When a reaction affects the nucleus of an atom.
-- nuclear reaction
11 〉 The particles in the nucleus of an atom.
-- nucleons
15 〉 Properties of a substance that can be observed without using a chemical reaction that would change the substance.
-- physical property
1 〉 A chemical in a reaction that is used up before other ingredients in the reaction, thus limiting how much of the resulting substance can be produced.
-- limiting reagent
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-10
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
11 〉 The force between two molecules.
-- intermolecular force
5 〉 Orbitals created by mixing other orbitals.
-- hybrid orbitals
6 〉 The process wherein orbitals of similar energies are combined to form a set of equivalent ‘hybrid’ orbital.
-- hybridization
7 〉 A chemical reaction where water is introduced in another substance usually to separate it.
-- hydrolysis
8 〉 When substances cannot dissolve into one another
-- immiscible
9 〉 Compunds which change colors at different pH levels.
-- indicators
10 〉 Molecules that exist only during a chemical reaction; not before or after the reaction.
-- intermediate
13 〉 A bond formed when charge particles stick together.
-- ionic bond
14 〉 The energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom.
-- ionization energy
15 〉 A chemical reaction after which the resulting agents cannot be changed back into the reactions ingredients.
-- irreversible reaction
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-8
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
9 〉 The path through which electrons flow.
-- circuit
14 〉 When vapor changes into a liquid.
-- condensation
1 〉 Type of oxide that can form a base if water is added.
-- base anhydride
2 〉 A compound that consists of specifically two elements.
-- binary compound
3 〉 Energy that holds nucleus’ neutrons and protons together
-- binding energy
4 〉 Used to describe the study of the flow of heat.
-- calorimetry
6 〉 When a reaction provides the agents for a subsequent reaction.
-- chain reaction
7 〉 Properties that require a chemical reaction to observe.
-- chemical properties
8 〉 Used to describe when symmetric parts of a molecule are not super imposable on one another.
-- chirality
10 〉 A solution property that changes if the concentration of that solution changes.
-- colligative property
11 〉 When a compound is changed into water, heat, and CO2 as a result of combining with oxygen.
-- combustion
13 〉 The amount of a substance dissolved in a liquid.
-- concentration
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-9
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
3 〉 A bond where atoms share elections.
-- covalent bond
1 〉 The types and totals of atoms which makeup a molecule.
-- constitution
2 〉 A spectrum all the colors of light.
-- continuous spectrum
4 〉 The amount of a specific radioactive material it takes to create a chain reaction.
-- critical mass
5 〉 When a complex molecule becomes broken apart to create two or more smaller ones.
-- decomposition
7 〉 When particles move to a lower area of concentration from a high area of concentration.
-- diffusion
8 〉 When a substance, called a solvent, is added to a suspension to reduce the concentration.
-- dilution
9 〉 When a mix of liquids is separated by heating it up because one liquid boils at a different temperature than the other.
-- distillation
10 〉 When a compound is separated by the use of electricity.
-- electrolysis
13 〉 The current level of energy an electron has within an atom.
-- energy level
15 〉 When a solution is completely neutral in a titration.
-- equivalence point
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-1
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
6 〉 A group containing 3 carbon atoms and a double bond
-- allyl group
3 〉 The minimum energy which reacting species must possess in order to be able to form an 'activated complex', or 'transition state', before proceeding to the products.
-- activation energy
4 〉 Reactions in which an unsaturated system is saturated or part saturated by the addition of a molecule across the multiple bond.
-- addition reactions
7 〉 The migration of a double bond in a 3-carbon system from carbon atoms one and two to carbon atoms two and three
-- allylic rearrangement
10 〉 A term applied to the combination of molecules of a substance with one another to form more complex systems.
-- association
12 〉 A a term applied to the selective synthesis of one diastereomeric form of a compound resulting from the influence of an existing chiral centre adjacent to the developing asymmetric carbon atom.
-- asymmetric induction
13 〉 The energy levels of electrons in an atom which may be described in terms of the four quantum numbers.
-- atomic orbital
14 〉 The number of particles (atoms or molecules) in one mole of any pure substance.
-- Avogadro's constant
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-2
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
1 〉 A chemical reaction in which two species (e.g. molecules, ions or radicals) react together to form new chemical species.
-- bimolecular reaction
3 〉 Any of two or more hypothetical structures of resonance theory which can be written for a molecule simply by rearranging the valence electrons of the molecule.
-- canonical structures
7 〉 The method for producing gasoline from heavy petroleum distillates.
-- catalytic cracking
4 〉 A solution of definite pH made up in such a way that the pH alters only gradually with the addition of an acid or a base.
-- buffer solution
8 〉 Electron systems in which bonding electrons are not localised between two atoms as for a single bond but are spread (delocalized) over the whole group.
-- delocalization
9 〉 The process of improving the octane number of straight-run gasoline by increasing the proportion of aromatic and branched chain alkanes.
-- catalytic reforming
10 〉 The phenomenon in which plane polarised light is turned in a clockwise direction.
-- dextrorotatory
11 〉 Reactions which proceed by means of a set of repeating cyclical steps, e.g. the free radical addition of hydrogen bromide to an alkene.
-- chain reaction
12 〉 Stereoisomeric structures which are not enantiomers (mirror images) of one another.
-- diastereomers
14 〉 The angle between groups attached on adjacent carbon atoms when viewed in a Newman projection.
-- dihedral angle
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-3
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
6 〉 The tendency for atoms in a molecule to attract electrons
-- electronegativity
9 〉 An atom, molecule or ion able to accept an electron pair.
-- electrophile
1 〉 A process in which a compound of one oxidation state changes to compounds two or more oxidation states
-- disproportionation
2 〉 The process whereby a molecule is split into simpler fragments which may be smaller molecules, atoms, free radicals or ions.
-- dissociation
3 〉 Some atoms can share two pairs of electrons to form a double bond (two covalent bonds).
-- double bond
7 〉 The particular order in which electrons are arranged in an atom or molecule.
-- electronic configuration
8 〉 If an electron passes from one orbital to another an electronic transition occurs and there is the emission or absorption of energy corresponding to the difference in energy of the two orbitals known as
-- electronic transition
10 〉 An overall reaction in which an electrophile binds to a substrate with the expulsion of another electrophile is known as
-- electrophilic substitution
14 〉 A thermodynamic quantity which is a measure of the degree of disorder within any system.
-- entropy
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-4
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
3 〉 A bond where six electrons are shared between two atoms.
-- Triple Bond
5 〉 The "3-D" arrangements of hydrocarbons.
-- Stereochemistry
1 〉 The electrons of an atom that are highest in energy and in the outermost orbitals.
-- Valence Electrons
2 〉 A hydrocarbon that can undergo addition reactions, meaning it contains a double or a triple bond.
-- Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
4 〉 Molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of atoms yet differ in their 3-D orientation.
-- Stereoisomer
10 〉 An atom that has an unshared electron pair.
-- Nucleophiles
11 〉 Biological molecules, such as DNA and RNA, composed of a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
-- Nucleic Acids
12 〉 Name the formula that shows the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule.
-- Molecular Formula
13 〉 A chemical formula where electrons are represented with dots. Covalent bonds are represented with a line connecting two atoms—the line represents two electrons.
-- Lewis Structure
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-5
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
5 〉 A neutral atom containing an unpaired electron.
-- Free Radicals
12 〉 The removal of water from a molecule.
-- Dehydration
2 〉 It occurs when a hydrogen atom has an electromagnetic attractive interaction with an electronegative atom.
-- Hydrogen Bonding
4 〉 An atom, or group of atoms, that is responsible for reactivity of the molecule it is a part of.
-- Functional Groups
8 〉 A molecule that seeks out electrons, also known as a Lewis Acid or an electron pair acceptor.
-- Electrophile
9 〉 Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction an atom has for electrons.
-- Electronegativity
15 〉 An atom with four different atoms or groups attached to it.
-- Chirality Center
13 〉 A very strong attraction between two or more atoms that are sharing their electrons.
-- Covalent Bond
14 〉 Isomers that differ in the order the atoms are placed. They have the same number of atoms, just in a different order.
-- Constitutional Isomers
one liner| organic| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy one liners |organic chemistry| B.pharmacy file-6
This post contains some one liners of Organic Chemistry. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Organic Chemistry.
9 〉 Isomers formed by restricted rotation
-- rotamers
1 〉 An instrument used to measure the amount of rotation of plane polarized light by a compound, generally prepared in a solution
-- polarimeter
2 〉 A group that is used to protect a functional group from unwanted reactions. After application the protecting group can be removed to reveal the original functional group.
-- protecting group
3 〉 An equimolar mixture of the two enantiomeric isomers of a compound.
-- racemic mixture
6 〉 The process of separation of a racemate into its two enantiomers by means of some chiral agency.
-- resolution
12 〉 An instrument that measures the spectrum of a sample.
-- spectrometer
8 〉 A process in which the forward reaction can reach an equilibrium with the reverse reaction.
-- reversible process
13 〉 The sideways projection of a carbon-carbon single bond and the attached substituents.
-- sawhorse projection
14 〉 An instrument that measures the degree of absorption (or emission) of electromagnetic radiation by a substance.
-- spectrophotometer
15 〉 When a complex is formed between a metal ion and an a ligand in solution, the equilibrium may be expressed by a constant which is related to the free energy change for the process
-- stability constant
One liners Pharmaceutics| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-7
This post contains some one liners of Pharmaceutics. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Pharmaceutics.
3 〉 Different crystalline form of a solvated compound that differ in the identity and/or the stoichiometry of the solvating molecule.
-- pseudopolymorph
5 〉 Measure of the fraction of a given drug that is absorbed intact into the systemic circulation from a dosage form, relative to a recognized, clinically proven, standard dosage form of that drug.
-- relative bioavailability
8 〉 Transition of a suspension of solid, usually colloid, particles in a liquid (sol) to an apparent solid, jelly- like material
-- sol-gel transition
9 〉 Usually small, flat, and soft tablets, which are designed to be placed under the tongue to allow direct absorption of the active ingredient through the mucosa for systemic effect.
-- sublingual tablets
10 〉 Additives making a substance soluble or more soluble, especially in water.
-- solubilizing agents
13 〉 Condition of being aseptic, or statistically free from living microorganisms and their spores.
-- sterility
14 〉 Process of making dense, spherical pellets by means of special spheronizing or pelletizing equipment.
-- spheronization
one liners Pharmaceutics| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-6
This post contains some one liners of Pharmaceutics. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Pharmaceutics.
1 〉 Usually water or low-molecular-weight alcohols or compounds, used in topical applications and in wet granulation, for the production of tablets.
-- moistening agents
2 〉 Dosage form comprising several elements (e.g., microspheres or coated pellets) dif- fering in the rate of drug release.
-- multi compartment formulation
3 〉 Consists of several different layers that are compressed on top of each other, to form a single tablet composed of two or more layers.
-- multilayer tablet
4 〉 Device that disperses liquids to aerosols for therapeutic use by inhalation through a mask.
-- nebulizer
6 〉 Kinetic model, where the whole body is thought of as a single compartment in which a substance is dis- tributed rapidly, achieving an equilibrium between blood and tissue immediately.
-- one-compartment model
7 〉 Time required to achieve the minimum effective plasma concentration following administration of the dosage form.
-- onset of drug action
11 〉 Transition of a solid crystalline phase to another phase having the same chemical composition but a dif- ferent crystal structure.
-- polymorphic transition
one liners Pharmaceutics| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-5
This post contains some one liners of Pharmaceutics. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Pharmaceutics.
1 〉 Insertion or grafting of a biological, living, inert, or radioactive material into the body.
-- implantation
6 〉 Formation of microparticles encapsulating a drug.
-- microencapsulation
2 〉 Specific case of drug embedding in insoluble excipients (typically in a polymer) in order to achieve extended release.
-- matrix formulation
5 〉 Number that expresses the reduction in the numbers of a microorganism, brought about by a sterilizaion process.
-- inactivation factor (IF)
7 〉 Reversible formation of association colloids from surfactants in nonpolar solvents leads to aggregates termed inverted (or inverse, reverse, or reversed) micelles.
-- inverted micelle
10 〉 Concentration of a drug that must be achieved in the plasma before any desired therapeutic or pharmacological effect can be obtained.
-- minimum effective plasma concentration
11 〉 Initial, typically larger than the maintenance dose of a drug given to a patient at the start of pharmacotherapy.
-- loading dose
14 〉 Release of a drug from a dosage form that it is not immediate
-- modified release
12 〉 Lowest concentration of an antibacterial drug necessary to inhibit the growth of a microorganism.
-- minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
one liners Pharmaceutics| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-4
This post contains some one liners of Pharmaceutics. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Pharmaceutics.
3 〉 Process of enclosing a drug in a (micro or nano) particle (capsule, liposome, polymer).
-- encapsulation
8 〉 Summary of operations carried out to convert a pharmacologically active compound into a dosage form suitable for administration.
-- formulation
10 〉 The Process of contact and adhesion whereby particles in dispersion form larger-size clusters.
-- flocculation
11 〉 Process in which powder particles are made to aggregate to larger particles called granules.
-- granulation
12 〉 An aqueous solution used for the prevention and treatment of mouth and throat infections.
-- gargle
13 〉 Pace at which a drug along with the stomach content leaves and enters the duodenum.
-- gastric emptying rate
15 〉 Crystalline form of a compound in which water molecules are part of the crystal structure.
-- hydrate
one liners Pharmaceutics| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-3
This post contains some one liners of Pharmaceutics. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Pharmaceutics.
1 〉 An Obstacle such as coating or embedding, which acts as a factor controlling the rate of drug release.
-- diffusion barrier
2 〉 Name a stage in the drying of solids, above which the drying rate is linear, at which the drying rate ceases to be linear, until it reaches the equilibrium moisture content.
-- critical moisture content
3 〉 Formulation in which individual doses of a granulated dosage form are separated
-- divided granule
5 〉 Powder formulation in which individual doses of a powdered dosage form are separately wrapped
-- divided powder
7 〉 A Formulated preparation of molecules/drugs that are rarely if ever suitable for administration to patients without additives.
-- dosage form
8 〉 Dosage form in which the active ingredient is insoluble in the carrier; includes aerosols, suspensions, emulsions , and foams
-- disperse system
14 〉 The process of separating the lighter particles of a powder from the heavier ones by means of an upward-directed stream of fluid
-- elutriation
15 〉 Name a substance that loses water to form a lower hydrate or becomes anhydrous spontaneously.
-- efflorescent
one liners Pharmaceutics| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-2
This post contains some one liners of Pharmaceutics. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Pharmaceutics.
2 〉 Transfer of a drug across a membrane by a transporter (often a protein) constituent of the cytosol membrane.
-- carrier-mediated drug transport
3 〉 Reversal of coagulation or flocculation, i.e., the dispersion of aggregates to form a stable colloidal suspension or emulsion.
-- deflocculation
4 〉 Separation of colloidal systems into two liquid phases.
-- coacervation
6 〉 Close, tight aggregation of colloid particles, emulsion droplets, suspension particles, which are difficult to redisperse.
-- coagulation
9 〉 A Substance that absorbs sufficient moisture from the atmosphere to dissolve itself.
-- deliquescent
10 〉 A solid dosage form prepared to a desired shape, usually in large-scale production, by means of high pressure in a punch and die.
-- compressed tablet
13 〉 Surfactant (or a mixture containing one or more surfactants) having cleaning properties in dilute solutions
-- detergent
15 〉 The Threshold detergent concentration at which micelle formation begins in the bulk phase is called
-- critical micelle concentration (cmc)
One liners Pharmaceutics| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-1
This post contains some one liners of Pharmaceutics. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Pharmaceutics.
1 〉 Adherence of particles into a larger mass due to moisture, static charge, or chemical or mechanical binding
-- agglomeration
5 〉 Characteristic angle of slope formed with the horizontal by the side of a static conical mound of powder.
-- angle of repose
6 〉 Process by which food is rendered free from pathogenic, toxigenic, and spoilage organisms.
-- appertization
10 〉 Relationship between two preparations of the same drug in the same dosage form that have a similar bioavailability.
-- bioequivalence
12 〉 Virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product applicable to the prevention, treatment, or cure of diseases or injuries in humans and/or animals.
-- biological product
14 〉 Technique that uses living organisms to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses
-- biotechnology
One liners Microbiology| B.Pharmacy| Pharmacy file-15
This post contains some one liners of Microbiology. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Microbiology.
1 〉 An infection of the external ear canal, most commonly caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa; often called swimmer’s ear
-- otitis externa
3 〉 Test in which antigen and antisera are added to neighboring wells in an agar gel, allowing visualization of precipitin arcs
-- Ouchterlony assay
4 〉 Fourth stage of disease, during which the number of pathogens present in the host decreases, along with signs and symptoms of disease
-- period of decline
5 〉 The chemical reaction that removes electrons (often as part of H atoms) from donor molecules, leaving them oxidized
-- oxidation reaction
6 〉 The third stage of acute disease, during which the number of pathogens present in the host is greatest and the signs and symptoms of disease are most severe
-- period of illness
7 〉 The mechanism for making ATP that uses the potential energy stored within an electrochemical gradient to add Pi to ADP
-- oxidative phosphorylation
8 〉 A condition in which the gums are inflamed and may erode
-- periodontal disease
10 〉 The inflammation of the gums that is more severe than gingivitis, spreading deeper into the tissues
-- periodontitis
11 〉 The isolation of an individual for the purpose of preventing the spread of disease
-- quarantine
12 〉 The network of neurons that connects the CNS with organs, sensory organs, and muscles throughout the body
-- peripheral nervous system
13 〉 Structure of protein complexes formed by the combination of several separate polypeptides or subunits
-- quaternary structure
14 〉 The mechanism by which regulatory T cells inhibit self-reactive immune responses in T cells that have already exited the thymus
-- peripheral tolerance
15 〉 Class of antiprotozoan drugs long used for the treatment of malaria; interferes with heme detoxification
-- quinolines
one liner| Microbiology| B.pharmacy| Pharmacy liners | microbiology| B.pharmacy File-16
This post contains some one liners of Microbiology. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Microbiology.
1 〉 The space between the cell wall and the plasma membrane, primarily in gram-negative bacteria
-- periplasmic space
3 〉 Muscular contractions of the gastrointestinal tract that propel ingested material through the stomach,
-- peristalsis
4 〉 A protein complex in a photosystem, containing a pigment molecule that can undergo oxidation upon excitation by a light-harvesting pigment
-- reaction center
5 〉 Having numerous flagella covering the entire surface of a bacterial cell is known as
-- peritrichous
6 〉 An unstable and toxic ions and molecules derived from partial reduction of oxygen
-- reactive oxygen species (ROS)
10 〉 A type of endocytosis in which extracellular ligands are targeted to specific cells through their binding to specific cell surface receptors
-- receptor-mediated endocytosis
11 〉 Name a dormant cell that survives in the death phase and is resistant to most antibiotics
-- persister
12 〉 A a DNA molecule resulting from the cutting and insertion of DNA from one organism into the DNA of another organism, resulting in a new combination of genetic material
-- recombinant DNA molecule
13 〉 Small red or purple spots on the skin that result from blood leaking out of damaged vessels
-- petechiae
14 〉 The process by which DNA from one organism is cut and new pieces of foreign DNA from a second organism are inserted,
-- recombinant DNA technology
15 〉 The tendency for a molecule to acquire electrons and become reduced
-- redox potential
Microbiology Important questions ( one liners )-13 Pharmacy
This post contains some one liners of Microbiology. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Microbiology.
1 〉 On a light microscope, the lenses closest to the specimen, typically located at the ends of turrets is called as
-- objective lenses
4 〉 An adaptive immune defenses received from another individual or animal
-- passive immunity
5 〉 A a special objective lens on a microscope designed to be used with immersion oil to improve resolution
-- oil immersion lens
6 〉 An individual capable of transmitting a pathogen to another individual without becoming infected
-- passive carrier
7 〉 The short fragment of DNA made during lagging strand synthesis
-- Okazaki fragment
8 〉 Name the most serious stage of pertussis (whooping cough), characterized by severe and prolonged coughing spells
-- paroxysmal stage
10 〉 The means of entry by a pathogen through skin or mucous membranes when these barriers are breached
-- parenteral route
11 〉 Name the type of symbiosis in which one population benefits while harming the other parasitology the study of parasites
-- parasitism
13 〉 This refers to a cytokine signal released from a cell to a receptor on a nearby cell
-- paracrine function
14 〉 Inflammation of the conjunctiva in newborns caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae transmitted during childbirth
-- ophthalmia neonatorum
3 〉 Microorganism that cannot synthesize its own ATP and, therefore, must rely on a host cell for energy; behaves like a parasite when inside a host cell,
-- obligate intracellular pathogen
Microbiology Important Questions ( One Liners )-12 Pharmacy
This post contains some one liners of Microbiology. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Microbiology.
1 〉 A type of inclusion containing volutin, a polymerized inorganic phosphate that appears red when stained with methylene blue
-- metachromatic granule
2 〉 A virus composed of a nucleic acid core, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a capsid
-- naked virus
4 〉 The science of studying a collection of mRNA molecules produced from microbial communities
-- metatranscriptomics
5 〉 The member of the quinolone family that functions by inhibiting the activity of DNA gyrase, blocking DNA replication
-- nalidixic acid
7 〉 A part of the upper throat (pharynx) extending from the posterior nasal cavity; carries air inhaled through the nose
-- nasopharynx
9 〉 A three-dimensional structure of folded fully functional proteins
-- native structure
10 〉 A glycoprotein expressed only on the surface of antigen-presenting cells and involved in the presentation of foreign antigens from pathogens ingested by phagocytosis
-- MHC II molecule
11 〉 A lymphoid cells that recognize and destroy abnormal target cells by inducing apoptosis
-- natural killer cells (NK cells)
13 〉 A a stain that produces colour around the structure of interest while not coloring the structure itself
-- negative stain
14 〉 An organism that requires oxygen at levels lower than atmospheric concentration
-- microaerophile
15 〉 A herpes infection of the newborn, generally caused by infection during birth
-- neonatal herpes
Microbiology Important Questions ( One Liners )-11 b.Pharmacy
This post contains some one liners of Microbiology. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Microbiology.
2 〉 Antihelminthic drug of the benzimidazole class that binds to helminthic β-tubulin, preventing microtubule formation
-- mebendazole
4 〉 An animal that transfers a pathogen from one host to another or from a reservoir to a host without being infected by the pathogen itself
-- mechanical vector
5 〉 Lipid molecules with attached sugars that are found as components of gram-negative outer membranes
-- lipopolysaccharide
6 〉 A ring structure formed from complement proteins C6 through C9 that penetrates the membranes of a targeted cell, causing cell lysis and death
-- membrane attack complex (MAC)
7 〉 The interval of growth when cells divide exponentially; also known as the exponential growth phase
-- log phase
8 〉 A known volumes are vacuum filtered aseptically through a membrane with a pore size small enough to trap microorganisms, which are counted after growth on plates
-- membrane filtration technique
10 〉 Name a toxin that affects cell membrane function by either forming pores or disrupting the phospholipid bilayer
-- membrane-disrupting toxin
12 〉 An activated and differentiated B cell that is programmed to respond to secondary exposures to a specific antigen
-- memory B cell
15 〉 Name an inflammatory response that involves both the brain and the membranes that surround it
-- meningoencephalitis
Microbiology Important questions ( one liners )-10 Pharmacy
This post contains some one liners of Microbiology. These will help you to strengthen your basics in Microbiology.
2 〉 Name a method of acid-fast staining that does not use heat to infuse the primary stain, carbolfuchsin, into acid-fast cells
-- Kinyoun technique
3 〉 An interval before exponential growth of a microbial population during which cells adjust to a new environment
-- lag phase
4 〉 Region of the respiratory tract containing the vocal cords; also referred to as the voice box
-- larynx
6 〉 A polymer assembled from of individual units, monomers, that bind together like building blocks
-- macromolecule
7 〉 Lipid-based chemical mediators produced by leukocytes and other tissue cells; promote inflammation and allergic responses
-- leukotrienes
8 〉 White blood cells of various types, including granulocytes, lymphocytes, and monocytes
-- leukocytes
10 〉 Repair of the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, making the DNA molecule continuous
-- ligation
11 〉 The power of a microscope (or lens) to produce an image that appears larger than the actual specimen, expressed as a factor of the actual size
-- magnification
12 〉 The granulocytes similar in origin and function to basophils, but residing in tissues
-- mast cells
13 〉 The shorter identical peptide chains of an antibody molecule (two per antibody monomer), composed of variable and constant region segments
-- light chains
15 〉 Process by which energy from sunlight is absorbed by pigment molecules in photosynthetic membranes and converted into stored chemical energy in the forms of ATP and NADPH
-- light-dependent reaction
Microbiology Important Questions (One Liners Set - 8) | Pharmacy
1 〉 Name a group of common sexually transmitted viruses that may be associated with genital warts or with cervical cancer
-- human papillomavirus (HPV)
2 〉 Name adaptive immunity mediated by antibodies produced by B cells
-- humoral immunity
3 〉 Name the stage of replication during which various proteins bind to the origin of replication to begin the replication process
-- initiation of DNA replication
4 〉 Name the stage of transcription during which RNA polymerase binds to a promoter and transcription begins
-- initiation of transcription
5 〉 Name a microorganism that has an optimum growth temperature close to the temperature of boiling water
-- hyperthermophile
6 〉 Name the type of mutation involving the addition of one or more bases into a DNA sequence
-- insertion
7 〉 Name the term that refers to a nonpolar molecule or portion of a molecule not capable of strong attraction to water molecules
-- hydrophobic
8 〉 Name the antiviral drugs that block the activity of the HIV integrase responsible for recombination of a DNA copy of the viral genome into the host cell chromosome
-- integrase inhibitors
9 〉 Name the molecule that slides between the stacked nitrogenous bases of the DNA double helix, potentially resulting in a frameshift mutation
-- intercalating agent
10 〉 Name the term that refers to a polar molecule or portion of a molecule capable of strong attraction to water molecules
-- hydrophilic
14 〉 Cytokines largely produced by immune system cells that help coordinate efforts against invading pathogens
-- interleukins
15 〉 Name the enzyme produced by pathogens that degrades hyaluronic acid between adjacent cells in connective tissue
-- hyaluronidase
Microbiology Important questions (one liners Set - 7) Pharmacy
1 〉 Name the process producing a mixture of lactic acid, ethanol and/or acetic acid, and CO2 as fermentation products
-- heterolactic fermentation
3 〉 Name the bacteria that have more than 50% guanine and cytosine nucleotides in their DNA
-- high G+C gram-positive bacteria
4 〉 Which bond is formed between the negatively charged phosphate groups that holds a lot of potential energy
-- high-energy phosphate bond
5 〉 Name the large group of antigens bound by antibodies; large enough to settle out of fluid suspension
-- immune complex
6 〉 A staining technique in which cells are fixed and holes dissolved in the membrane to allow passage of labeled antibodies to bind specific intracellular targets
-- immunocytochemistry (ICC)
8 〉 Technique in which antibody or antigen can be concentrated by passing fluids through porous membranes, and target molecules are captured as they pass
-- immunofiltration
9 〉 Fungal disease caused by the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum
-- histoplasmosis
10 〉 A technique that uses a fluorescence microscope and antibody-specific fluorochromes to determine the presence of specific pathogens in a specimen
-- immunofluorescence
11 〉 A staining technique in which labeled antibodies are bound to specific cells in a tissue section
-- immunohistochemistry (IHC)
12 〉 DNA-binding proteins found in eukaryotes and archaea that aid in orderly packaging of chromosomal DNA
-- histones
13 〉 The study of the immune system
-- immunology
17 〉 Name the process producing only lactic acid as a fermentation product
-- homolactic fermentation
18 〉 Vaccine composed of whole pathogen cells or viruses that have been killed or inactivated through treatment with heat, radiation, or chemicals
-- inactivated vaccine
19 〉 Name the retrovirus responsible for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans
-- human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
20 〉 The number of individuals with new infections of a particular disease in a given period of time is called
-- incidence
21 〉 Movement of a pathogen from one host to another population through physical contact or through droplet transmission
-- horizontal direct transmission
22 〉 Inflammation of the conjunctiva in newborns caused by Chlamydia trachomatis transmitted during childbirth is
-- inclusion conjunctivitis
23 〉 Name the prokaryotic cell cytoplasmic structures for storing specific nutrients and other resources needed by cells
-- inclusions
24 〉 Introduction of genetic material from one organism to another organism within the same generation
-- horizontal gene transfer
25 〉 The first stage of acute disease, during which the pathogen begins multiplying in the host and signs and symptoms are not observable
-- incubation period
28 〉 Highly contagious and acute viral disease of the respiratory tract caused by the influenza virus
-- influenza
29 〉 Serious infection caused by Trypanosoma brucei and spread by the bite of the tsetse fly
-- human African trypanosomiasis
30 〉 Proteins that participate in ribosome assembly during initiation
-- initiation factors
31 〉 A group of common sexually transmitted viruses that may be associated with genital warts or with cervical cancer
-- human papillomavirus (HPV)
32 〉 Name the adaptive immunity mediated by antibodies produced by B cells
-- humoral immunity
33 〉 Name the enzyme produced by pathogens that degrades hyaluronic acid between adjacent cells in connective tissue
-- hyaluronidase
34 〉 The stage of replication during which various proteins bind to the origin of replication to begin the replication process
-- initiation of DNA replication
35 〉 The stage of transcription during which RNA polymerase binds to a promoter and transcription begins
-- initiation of transcription
41 〉 Refers to a polar molecule or portion of a molecule capable of strong attraction to water molecules
-- hydrophilic
42 〉 Cytokines largely produced by immune system cells that help coordinate efforts against invading pathogens
-- interleukins
43 〉 Refers to a nonpolar molecule or portion of a molecule not capable of strong attraction to water molecules
-- hydrophobic
44 〉 A host in which a parasite goes through some stages of its life cycle before migrating to the definitive host
-- intermediate host
45 〉 Potentially damaging immune response against an antigen is called
-- hypersensitivity
Microbiology Important Questions (One Liners Set - 4)
1 〉 Name the formation, development, and differentiation of blood cells from pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells
-- hematopoiesis
3 〉 A condition in which a disease caused by or acquired during a medical procedure
-- iatrogenic disease
6 〉 Name the inflammation of the mouth and gums that is often caused by the HSV-1 virus
-- herpetic gingivostomatitis
9 〉 What is the name of the eye infection caused by herpes simplex virus
-- herpes keratitis
11 〉 Name the point at which an image is in focus
-- image point (focus)
12 〉 Inflammation of the liver is known as
-- hepatitis
15 〉 Name the class of exotoxin that targets and lyses red blood cells, as well as other cells
-- hemolysin
Microbiology Important Questions (One Liners Set - 2)
2 〉 Name the painless ulcer that develops at the site of infection in primary syphilis
-- hard chancre
3 〉 Name hypothyroidism caused by an autoimmune disease affecting thyroid function
-- Hashimoto thyroiditis
4 〉 Leukocytes found in the peripheral blood that are characterized by numerous granules
-- granulocytes
7 〉 Bonds forms between the hydroxyl groups of two sugar molecules
-- glycosidic bond
8 〉 Class of antibacterials that inhibit cell wall synthesis by binding to peptidoglycan subunits and blocking their insertion into the cell wall
-- glycopeptides
9 〉 Name the conjugated protein with a carbohydrate attached
-- glycoprotein
12 〉 A type of kidney infection involving the glomeruli of the nephrons
-- glomerulonephritis
15 〉 Visible clumping of red blood cells that can be caused by some viruses, bacteria, and certain diseases in which antibodies
-- hemagglutination
Microbiology Important Questions (One Liners Set - 1)
1 〉 Name the antiviral drug that blocks the fusion of HIV receptors to the coreceptors required for virus entry into the cell
-- fusion inhibitor
5 〉 Name the type of kidney infection involving the glomeruli of the nephrons
-- glomerulonephritis
6 〉 Name the capillary bed in the nephron of the kidney that filters blood to form urine
-- glomerulus
7 〉 Name the cell envelope structure outside the cell wall in some bacteria that allows bacteria to adhere to surfaces,
-- glycocalyx
8 〉 Name the highly branched storage polysaccharide that is found animal cells and bacteria
-- glycogen
12 〉 Name a differential staining technique that distinguishes bacteria based upon their cell wall structure
-- Gram stain procedure
13 〉 Name leukocytes found in the peripheral blood that are characterized by numerous granules in the cytoplasm
-- granulocytes
14 〉 Name proteases released from a natural killer cell that enter the cytoplasm of a target cell, inducing apoptosis
-- granzymes
15 〉 Name the hyperthyroidism caused by an autoimmune disease affecting thyroid function
-- Graves disease
16 〉 Name the structure embedded in the dermis from which hair grows
-- hair follicle
17 〉 Name the organism that depends on high concentrations of salt in the environment to grow
-- halophile
18 〉 Name the organism that grows in the presence of high salt concentration but does not require it
-- halotolerant
19 〉 Name the chronic bacterial infection of peripheral nervous tissues caused by the acid-fast bacterium,
-- Hansen’s Disease
20 〉 One copy of each chromosome is known as
-- Haploid
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On Mineral Metabolism
1 〉 The normal concentration of serum calcium
-- 9–11 mg/dl. (4.5–5.5 mEq./l.)
6 〉 The normal concentration of serum potassium
-- 3.5–5.0 mEq/l,
8 〉 The copper containing protein involved for the conversion of ferrous iron (Fe2+) to ferric iron (Fe3+) in the plasma
-- Ceruloplasmin
10 〉 The element involved in the protection of cells against the damage of H2O2 and other free radicals
-- Selenium
11 〉 Substance(s) is(are) involved in the regulation of plasma calcium level
-- Calcitriol , Parathyroid hormone, Calcitonin
12 〉 Sulfur containing essential amino acid
-- Methionine
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On METABOLISM OF Nucleotides oneliners
1 〉 The amino acids required for the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines are
-- Glutamine and aspartate
2 〉 The enzyme xanthine oxidase is inhibited by
-- Allopurinol
3 〉 Tophi are mostly made up of
-- Sodium urate
4 〉 Hypouricemia is due to the deficiency of the enzyme
-- Xanthine oxidase
5 〉 The disorder in which the patients have an irresistible urge to bite their fingers and lips is
-- Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
7 〉 The ‘parent’ nucleotide synthesized in the biosynthesis of purines is
-- Inosine monophosphate
8 〉 Xanthine oxidase converts allopurinol to
-- Alloxanthine
9 〉 The amino acid that contributes to the synthesis of more than half of the pyrimidine ring
-- Aspartate
10 〉 The regulatory enzyme in the pyrimidine biosynthesis in animals is
-- Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II
11 〉 Name the enzyme associated with hyperuricemia
-- PRPP synthetase, HGPRT , Glucose 6-phosphatase
12 〉 An enzyme of purine metabolism associated with immunodeficiency disease
-- Adenosine deaminase
15 〉 The nitrogen atoms in the purine ring are obtained from
-- Glycine , Glutamine , Aspartate
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On METABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS oneliners
1 〉 The coenzyme that participates in transamination reactions is
-- Pyridoxal phosphate
2 〉 The most important enzyme involved in oxidative deamination is
-- Glutamate dehydrogenase
3 〉 N-Acetylglutamate is required for the activation of the enzyme
-- Carbamoyl phosphate synthase I
4 〉 Primary hyperoxaluria is due to a defect in the enzyme
-- Glycine transaminase
5 〉 The cofactor required for the conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine is
-- Tetrahydrobiopterin
7 〉 The metabolite excreted (elevated) in alkaptonuria is
-- Homogentisate
8 〉 The disease in which very high amount of tryptophan (nearly 60%) is converted to serotonin is
-- Malignant carcinoid syndrome
9 〉 The mammalian enzyme with the shortest half-life (about 10 minutes) is
-- Ornithine decarboxylase
11 〉 The synthesis of urea occurs in
-- Liver
12 〉 The amino acid required for the formation of glutathione
-- Glycine, Cysteine, Glutamate
14 〉 The amino acids are said to be ketogenic when the carbon skeleton is finally degraded to
-- Acetyl CoA
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On Metabolism of Lipids
1 〉 Niemann-Pick disease is due to a defect in the enzyme
-- Sphingomyelinase,
4 〉 The long chain fatty acids (C26—C35) are not oxidized due to the absence of peroxisomes. This disorder is known as
-- Zellweger syndrome
5 〉 Acetyl CoA from the mitochondria is transported into the cytosol after its conversion to
-- Citrate
7 〉 The fatty acid that is commonly found in the C2 of triacylglycerols is
-- Unsaturated fatty acid
9 〉 Hypercholesterolemia is observed in the disorder(s)
-- Hypothyroidism, Diabetes mellitus, Nephrotic syndrome
10 〉 The two final products in the -oxidation of odd chain fatty acids are
-- Acetyl CoA and propionyl CoA
12 〉 The most predominant lipid component of chylomicrons
-- Triacylglycerols
13 〉 Cholesterol synthesis is controlled by feedback inhibition of the enzyme
-- HMG CoA reductase
14 〉 A compound possessing hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups in its structure is known as
-- Ampipathic
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On Metabolism of Carbohydrates
1 〉 Name the five vitamins required by pyruvate dehydrogenase or -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
-- Thiamine, riboflavin, lipoic acid, niacin, pantothenic acid,
2 〉 Muscle glycogen does not directly contribute to blood glucose due to absence of the enyme
-- Absence of glucose 6-phosphatase
3 〉 Ascorbic acid is not synthesized in man due to lack of the enzyme
-- L-Gulonolactone oxidase
5 〉 Galactosemia is mostly due to the deficiency of the enzyme
-- Galactose 1-phosphate uridyltransferase
6 〉 The two amino acids that are never glucogenic are
-- Leucine and lysine
7 〉 Substrate level phosphorylation in citric acid cycle is catalysed by the enzyme
-- Succinate thiokinase
8 〉 The metabolic pathway concerned with the conversion of L-xylulose to D-xylulose is
-- Uronic acid pathway
9 〉 The name of the protein that has been identified to serve as a primer for glycogen synthesis is
-- Glycogenin
10 〉 The metabolite among the citric acid cycle intermediates performing a catalytic role
-- Oxaloacetate
11 〉 Which enzymes in glycolysis catalyses an irreversible reaction
-- Pyruvate kinase , Phosphofructokinase, Hexokinase
14 〉 The number of ATP produced when a molecule of acetyl CoA is oxidized through citric acid cycle
-- 12
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On Biological Oxidation
1 〉 The relation between the change of free energy (G), enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) is expressed by the equation
-- ΔG = ΔH – TΔS (T = Absolute temperature)
2 〉 A negative sign of free energy indicates that the reaction is
-- Exergonic or spontaneous
3 〉 The bonds responsible for a majority of high-energy compounds are
-- Phosphoanhydride bonds
4 〉 The storage form of high-energy compound in invertebrates is
-- Phosphoarginine
6 〉 The electron transport chain is located in
-- Inner mitochondrial membrane
7 〉 The prosthetic group present in cytochromes
-- Heme (porphyrin with iron)
8 〉 The component of electron transport chain which can directly react with molecular oxygen
-- Cytochrome oxidase (cyt a + a3)
9 〉 The site of ETC inhibited by cyanide
-- Cytochrome a + a3
10 〉 Superoxide is converted to H2O2 by the enzyme
-- Superoxide dismutase
11 〉 Name the compound with the greatest standard free energy.
-- Phosphoenolpyruvate
12 〉 Which components of ETC possesses isoprenoid units
-- Coenzyme Q
14 〉 Inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to
-- OH– K+ H+
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On HEMOGLOBIN AND PORPHYRINS
2 〉 The oxidation of ferrous (Fe2+) iron to ferric (Fe3+) iron in hemoglobin results in the formation of a compound namely
-- Methemoglobin
3 〉 The enzyme that catalyses the formation of carbonic acid
-- Carbonic anhydrase
4 〉 Name the compound that is increased in RBC of anemic patients to facilitate the supply of O2 to the tissues
-- 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
5 〉 Sickling of RBC in sickle-cell anemia is due to polymerization of
-- Deoxyhemoglobin,
6 〉 The disorders characterized by decreased synthesis or total absence of globin chains of hemoglobin are collectively known as
-- Thalassemias
8 〉 The enzyme defect in acute intermittent porphyria
-- Uroporphyrinogen synthase I
9 〉 The enzyme that is regulated by feedback inhibition in heme synthesis is
-- δ -Aminolevulinate synthase
10 〉 The product formed when heme oxygenase cleaves heme
-- Biliverdin
14 〉 The compound that facilitates the release of O2 from oxyhemoglobin
-- C1– , H+ , 2, 3-BPG
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On PLASMA PROTEINS
2 〉 The most commonly employed technique for separation of plasma proteins
-- Electrophoresis
4 〉 The cells responsible for the production of immunoglobulins
-- B-Lymphocytes
8 〉 The major component of acute phase proteins used for the evaluation of acute phase response
-- C-reactive protein
9 〉 The extrinsic and intrinsic pathways result in the formation of a common activated factor
-- Staurt factor
12 〉 Plasma albumin performs the following functions
-- Osmotic, Transport , Nutritive
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On digestion and absorption
1 〉 Cellulose is not digested in humans due to lack of the enzyme that hydrolyses
-- β-Glycosidic bonds
2 〉 The most important carbohydrate associated with flatulence caused by ingestion of leguminous seeds
-- Raffinose
3 〉 Lactose intolerance is caused by the deficiency of the enzyme
-- Lactase (β-galactosidase)
5 〉 Gastric HCl is secreted by
-- Parietal (oxyntic) cells
7 〉 The disease characterized by impairment in the absorption of neutral amino acids
-- Hartnup’s disease
8 〉 Trypsin hydrolyses peptide bonds, the carbonyl group of which is contributed by the amino acids
-- Arginine and lysine
9 〉 The inhibition of the enzyme pancreatic lipase by bile salts is overcome by a protein, namely
-- Colipase
10 〉 The vehicles for the transport of lipids from the intestinal lumen to the membrane of mucosal cells
-- Mixed micelles
12 〉 Transport of glucose from the lumen to the intestinal mucosal cells is coupled with diffusion of
-- Enteropeptidase
13 〉 The products obtained by the action of pancreatic lipase on triacylglycerols are
-- 2-Acylglycerol and free fatty acids
14 〉 The lipoproteins synthesized in the intestinal mucosal cells from the absorbed lipids are
-- Chylomicrons
15 〉 Salivary -amylase becomes inactive in the stomach primarily due to
-- Inactivation by low pH
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On Vitamins
-17 〉 The A in coenzyme A stands for
-- Acetylation
1 〉 The vitamin containing isoalloxazine ring
-- Riboflavin
2 〉 The vitamin that is regarded as a vitamin in search of a disease
-- Vitamin E (tocopherol)
3 〉 Anti-tuberculosis drug, isonicotinic acid hydrazide (INH) leads to the deficiency of vitamin
-- Pyridoxine (B6)
5 〉 The ‘burning feet syndrome’ in man is associated with the deficiency of
-- Pantothenic acid
6 〉 The vitamin that is synthesized by only microorganisms
-- Cobalamin (B12)
7 〉 The three Ds in pellagra stand for
-- Dermatitis, diarrhea and dementia
11 〉 The functionally active form of vitamin D is
-- Calcitriol
13 〉 The coenzyme directly concerned with the synthesis of biogenic amines
-- Pyridoxal phosphate
14 〉 Folic acid antagonist(s) used in the treatment of cancer
-- Methotrexate
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On enzymes
1 〉 The literal meaning of enzyme is
-- In yeast
3 〉 The non-protein part of holoenzyme
-- Coenzyme
5 〉 Examples of two enzymes containing zinc are
-- Alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase
6 〉 The place at which substrate binds with the enzyme
-- Active site
8 〉 The E.C. number for alcohol dehydrogenase is
-- E.C. 1.1.1.1
10 〉 The very first enzyme elevated in serum in myocardial infarction
-- Creatine phosphokinase (CPK)
13 〉 In the feedback regulation, the end product binds at
-- Allosteric site
Biochemistry Important One Liners Questions On Proteins and amino acids
2 〉 Proteins are the polymers of
-- L-α-Amino acids
3 〉 Name the sulfur containing essential amino acid
-- Methionine
5 〉 The non – amino acid present in coenzyme A
-- β-Alanine
6 〉 The bonds forming the backbone of protein structure
-- Peptide bonds